SOAS Research Online

Abstract

The present thesis discusses three Tibetan Buddhist pantheons created by the Qianlong court, namely the woodblock print Three Hundred Deities, the hand-illustrated Eulogies to the Sacred Images of the Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, and the sculpture assemblies in Fanhualou. Primarily focused on the pantheons’ iconographic composition and organisation, visual features and their enactments within the court culture, this thesis explores how the concept of Tibetan Buddhist pantheon, which is inherently contingent, is utilised and translated for distinctive purposes. Notwithstanding that these pantheons have been widely considered as the results of iconographic standardisation initiated by Changkya Rölpé Dorjé, the national preceptor and the root guru of the Qianlong emperor, each pantheon conveys distinctive religious meanings and fulfils various functions that go far beyond the presumed feature of establishing and solidifying the Tibetan Buddhist iconographic orthodoxy. The title of the thesis, Pantheons of the Emperor, underscores the primary role of the Qianlong emperor in not only promoting the production and reproduction of Tibetan Buddhist pantheons as a meritorious act but also engaging extensively throughout the process of the translation and appropriation of the pantheon's visual representations and religious contents. This was achieved with the purpose of solidifying his exceptional status both in the mundane aspect, as a devoted and righteous emperor, and in the super-mundane aspect, as a supreme being integrating kingship and religious authority. The first chapter compares the differences in the visual features, functions and circulations between the Three Hundred Deities and the Eulogies to the Sacred Images of the Buddhas and Bodhisattvas. Both pantheons are involved in the process of replication albeit through distinct methods, serving unique purposes that are reflected in their iconographic compositions. The second chapter is dedicated to the six pantheons in the side rooms of Fanhualou, a Tibetan Buddhist shrine within the Forbidden City. Through an iconographic investigation, it becomes evident that the six pantheons exhibit a highly unusual iconographic anomaly, primarily due to the identical configuration of the side rooms and the compartmentalised interior design of the entire building. This is followed by chapter three which examines the integrated parts of the six side rooms, the six stupas, showcasing noticeable stylistic hybridity derived from both Tibetan and Chinese traditions. One of the most significant discoveries of the thesis is that the design process of the stupas was primarily initiated and determined by the emperor. As a result, the stupas not only distinguish and recontextualize the six pantheons within the context of the Manchu court but also shed light on Qianlong's affirmation of the distinctive design of the six rooms. The final chapter reveals how the specific configuration of the central rooms as well as the spatial composition of the entire building, allow the Qianlong emperor to project himself as the apparition of Mañjuśrī in the centre of the building. Each chapter coheres around the heterogeneous facets of the pantheons in translation and expansion, and collectively outlines the significance of pantheons in shaping the religious landscape of the Qing court.